There are three major types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between these three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt (magma and/or lava), it is an igneous rock. This rock can be weathered and eroded, and then redeposited and lithified into a sedimentary rock, or be turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure that change the mineral content of the rock which gives it a characteristic fabric. The sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism. All three types of rocks may be re-melted; when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize.
An igneous rock is a rock that crystallizes from what?
Ground Truth Answers: melt (magma and/or lava)meltrock crystallizes from melt (magma and/or lava)melt (magma and/or lava)
Prediction:
Sedimentary rock can be turned into which of the three types of rock?
Ground Truth Answers: metamorphic rockmetamorphicmetamorphic rockmetamorphic
Prediction:
When the three types of rock are re-melted what is formed?
Ground Truth Answers: new magmaigneousnew magmamagma
Prediction:
What are the three major types of rock?
Ground Truth Answers: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphicigneous, sedimentary, and metamorphicigneous, sedimentary, and metamorphicigneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
Prediction:
What changes the mineral content of a rock?
Ground Truth Answers: heat and pressureheat and pressureheat and pressureheat and pressure
Prediction:
What are three types of crystallization?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is an important concept in crystallization?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What kind of mineral crystallizes from erosion?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What changes the way a mineral is deposited?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happens when three types of minerals are re-deposited and change their characteristics?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What illustrates the relationships between rock and crystal?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Which type of rock cannot be re-melted?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How is a rock lithified?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does heat prevent from changing in the crystallization process?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What gives sedimentary rock its characteristic fabric?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
In the 1960s, a series of discoveries, the most important of which was seafloor spreading, showed that the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantle, is separated into a number of tectonic plates that move across the plastically deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the asthenosphere. There is an intimate coupling between the movement of the plates on the surface and the convection of the mantle: oceanic plate motions and mantle convection currents always move in the same direction, because the oceanic lithosphere is the rigid upper thermal boundary layer of the convecting mantle. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the convecting mantle is called plate tectonics.
What was the most important discovery that led to the understanding that Earth's lithosphere is separated into tectonic plates?
Ground Truth Answers: seafloor spreadingseafloor spreadingseafloor spreadingseafloor spreading
Prediction:
Which parts of the Earth are included in the lithosphere?
Ground Truth Answers: the crust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantlecrust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantlecrust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantlecrust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantle
Prediction:
What is another word for the Earth's upper mantle?
Ground Truth Answers: asthenosphereasthenosphereasthenosphereasthenosphere
Prediction:
Plate tectonics can be seen as the intimate coupling between rigid plates on the surface of the Earth and what?
Ground Truth Answers: the convecting mantleconvection of the mantleconvection of the mantlethe convecting mantle
Prediction:
In what decade was seafloor spreading discovered?
Ground Truth Answers: the 1960s1960s1960s1960s
Prediction:
When was the most important discovery about thermal boundaries made?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is another word for seafloor spreading?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What direction do sea currents and seafloor spreading always move in?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is involved in sea current coupling?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is another term for sea currents?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are the different tectonic plates called?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why do oceanic plates and mantle convection currents move in opposite directions?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the lower thermal boundary layer called?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was the lithosphere discovered?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are the lithosphere and asthenosphere called when coupled together?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries. Mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another. Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, in which the continents move across the surface of the Earth over geologic time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.
What is the area called where two plates move apart?
Ground Truth Answers: divergent boundariesdivergent boundariesdivergent boundariesdivergent boundaries
Prediction:
What is the area called where one plate subducts under another?
Ground Truth Answers: convergent boundariesconvergent boundariesconvergent boundariesconvergent boundaries
Prediction:
What type of fault boundary is defined by having widespread powerful earthquakes, as in the state of California?
Ground Truth Answers: Transform boundariesTransformTransform boundariesTransform boundaries
Prediction:
Whose theory was the theory of continental drift?
Ground Truth Answers: Alfred WegenerAlfred WegenerAlfred WegenerAlfred Wegener
Prediction:
The lithosphere moves over which mantle n the theory of plate tectonics?
Ground Truth Answers: the convecting mantleconvecting mantleconvectingconvecting
Prediction:
What did the theory regarding the San Andreas fault do?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What were mid ocean ridges and high regions of geologic features called?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happened as a result of hydrothermal vents and underwater volcanoes that are transform boundaries?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What keeps the theory of transform boundaries going?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who discovered plate tectonics?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why was Wegener's theory important for understanding the lithosphere?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where in the ocean are volcano arcs located?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the mechanism for plate tectonics?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happens when one plate touches another?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves in reverse to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid outer core (where shear waves were not able to propagate) and a dense solid inner core. These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a crust and lithosphere on top, the mantle below (separated within itself by seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.
What types of waves do seismologists use to image the interior of the Earth?
Ground Truth Answers: seismic wavesseismicseismicseismic
Prediction:
In the layered model of the Earth, the outermost layer is what?
Ground Truth Answers: crustcrustlithospherecrust and lithosphere
Prediction:
In the layered model of the Earth, the mantle has two layers below it. What are they?
Ground Truth Answers: the outer core and inner coreouter core and inner coreouter core and inner coreouter core and inner core
Prediction:
In the layered model of the Earth there are seismic discontinuities in which layer?
Ground Truth Answers: the mantlemantlemantlemantle
Prediction:
Recently a more detailed model of the Earth was developed. Seismologists were able to create this using images of what from the interior of the Earth?
Ground Truth Answers: wave speedswave speedswave speeds
Prediction:
What do seismologists use to map the Earth's crust?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What was not able to see through the dense solid core of the Earth?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
By how many kilometers are shear waves separated when measuring the crust?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What have CT scans lead to for doctors and their patients?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
In the layered Earth model, what is the inner core separated by?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the outer core called?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the size of the mantle?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How quickly to wave speeds inside the earth move?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The following four timelines show the geologic time scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this compresses the most recent eon. Therefore, the second scale shows the most recent eon with an expanded scale. The second scale compresses the most recent era, so the most recent era is expanded in the third scale. Since the Quaternary is a very short period with short epochs, it is further expanded in the fourth scale. The second, third, and fourth timelines are therefore each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks. The Holocene (the latest epoch) is too small to be shown clearly on the third timeline on the right, another reason for expanding the fourth scale. The Pleistocene (P) epoch. Q stands for the Quaternary period.
Why is the second timeline needed?
Ground Truth Answers: second scale shows the most recent eon with an expanded scalecompresses the most recent eracompresses the most recent era
Prediction:
Which timeline is further expanded in the fourth scale?
Ground Truth Answers: QuaternaryQuaternaryQuaternary
Prediction:
What is the name of the latest epoch?
Ground Truth Answers: The HoloceneHoloceneThe HoloceneHolocene
Prediction:
The Pleistocene epoch takes place during which period?
Ground Truth Answers: the Quaternary periodQuaternary periodQuaternaryQuaternary
Prediction:
What does the second timeline compress?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What has the first timeline added to the timeline to expand it?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why is the most recent era expanded in the first scale?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where is the Holocene further expanded since it is very short with short epochs?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why is the Holocene not shown clearly on the first timeline?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the largest eon?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Which timeline is the most accurate?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How many epochs are there?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does the fourth scale compress?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the name of the epoch expanded in the second scale?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The principle of cross-cutting relationships pertains to the formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault.
What principle relates to the formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut?
Ground Truth Answers: The principle of cross-cutting relationshipscross-cutting relationshipscross-cutting relationships
Prediction:
When rock formations are found on top of a fault that have not been cut, then they must be older or younger than the fault?
Ground Truth Answers: younger than the faultyoungeryounger
Prediction:
Finding what helps to determine if a fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault?
Ground Truth Answers: the key bedkey bedkey bed
Prediction:
Rocks on top of a fault that are cut are always older or younger than the fault itself?
Ground Truth Answers: older than the faultolderyounger
Prediction:
What principle helps find the difference between a normal or thrust fault?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are key beds younger than?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What needs to be found to find out if rocks are related?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the age of key beds if they are related to a fault and not cut?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does cutting a key bed help an older rock form?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the key bed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What principle helps define the key bed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why are cut rocks on top of a fault younger than the fault?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is a thrust fault?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can you say about a fault that penetrates the top rocks but not the lower formations?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The principle of inclusions and components states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or clasts) are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them.
What foreign bodies, which are older than the rocks themselves, occur igneous rocks?
Ground Truth Answers: xenolithsxenolithsinclusionsxenoliths
Prediction:
Xenoliths are picked up by what and deposited into the matrix of igneous rocks?
Ground Truth Answers: magma or lava flowsmagma or lava flowsmagma or lavamagma or lava flows
Prediction:
What is another word for inclusions in sedimentary rocks?
Ground Truth Answers: clastsclastsclastsclasts
Prediction:
What is the principle that states that with sedimentary rocks, inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them?
Ground Truth Answers: The principle of inclusions and componentsprinciple of inclusions and componentsThe principle of inclusions and componentsinclusions and components
Prediction:
What is something that is often torn up and included in sedimentary rock?
Ground Truth Answers: gravelgravelgravelgravel
Prediction:
What do matrix components show about how magma flows?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where is the gravel from that is found in xenoliths?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happens to the gravel found in xenoliths?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is another word for xenoliths?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How old is a lava flow after it cools?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why do igneous rocks use gravel?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are xenoliths made out of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What says that formations must be older than the inclusions inside them?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the matrix?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is another name a formation?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by William Smith almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the principles of succession were developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, the localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat (facies change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time.
Which principle is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks?
Ground Truth Answers: The principle of faunal successionprinciple of faunal successionThe principle of faunal successionfaunal succession
Prediction:
Whose principles were the principle of faunal succession built upon?
Ground Truth Answers: William SmithWilliam SmithWilliam SmithWilliam Smith
Prediction:
The fact that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time causes the principle to become what?
Ground Truth Answers: complexcomplexcomplexquite complex
Prediction:
The presence or absence of what can be used to determine the relative age of the formations in which they are found?
Ground Truth Answers: organismsorganismsorganismsorganisms
Prediction:
The principle of faunal succession was developed 100 years before whose theory of evolution?
Ground Truth Answers: Charles DarwinCharles DarwinCharles DarwinCharles Darwin
Prediction:
Where can sedimentary rock not be found at the same time?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the theory of evolution based on?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can changes in habitat be used to provide about formations?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How much time after Charles Darwin, did William Smith develop the principles of succession?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is one uncertainty about the theory of evolution that makes it complex?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was Charles Darwin's theory of evolution published?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who wrote the principles of faunal succession?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why is the theory of evolution so complex?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why is it easy to use an organism's absence to show the age of a formation?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The principles of succession are dependent on what thought?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
At the beginning of the 20th century, important advancement in geological science was facilitated by the ability to obtain accurate absolute dates to geologic events using radioactive isotopes and other methods. This changed the understanding of geologic time. Previously, geologists could only use fossils and stratigraphic correlation to date sections of rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates it became possible to assign absolute ages to rock units, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages.
When was the ability to use radioactive isotopes to date rock formations developed?
Ground Truth Answers: At the beginning of the 20th century20th centuryAt the beginning of the 20th centurybeginning of the 20th century
Prediction:
What type of correlation was used previously to help date rock formations?
Ground Truth Answers: stratigraphic correlationstratigraphicstratigraphicstratigraphic
Prediction:
It is now possible to convert old relative ages into what type of ages using isotopic dating?
Ground Truth Answers: absolute agesrock unitsnew absolute
Prediction:
Previous to isotopic dating sections of rocks had to be dated using fossils and stratigraphic correlation relative to what?
Ground Truth Answers: to one anotherone anotherone another
Prediction:
When dating rocks, what is the absolute isotopic date applied to?
Ground Truth Answers: fossil sequencesfossil sequencesfossil sequencesfossil sequences
Prediction:
How did the advancement of using fossils help geological science in the early 20th century?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did using fossils help change for scientists?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was the ability to use fossils to date isotope formations developed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What has it now become possible to do when dating isotopes while using fossils?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can scientists apply relative rock sections to to find isotopes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When did geologists stop using isotopes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When did geologists beginning comparing fossils to each other?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did stratigraphic correlation replace?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Absolute ages had to be converted into what?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are fossil sequences applied to?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
For many geologic applications, isotope ratios of radioactive elements are measured in minerals that give the amount of time that has passed since a rock passed through its particular closure temperature, the point at which different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the crystal lattice. These are used in geochronologic and thermochronologic studies. Common methods include uranium-lead dating, potassium-argon dating, argon-argon dating and uranium-thorium dating. These methods are used for a variety of applications. Dating of lava and volcanic ash layers found within a stratigraphic sequence can provide absolute age data for sedimentary rock units which do not contain radioactive isotopes and calibrate relative dating techniques. These methods can also be used to determine ages of pluton emplacement. Thermochemical techniques can be used to determine temperature profiles within the crust, the uplift of mountain ranges, and paleotopography.
What techniques can be used to determine paleotopography?
Ground Truth Answers: Thermochemical techniquesThermochemicalThermochemicalThermochemical
Prediction:
The point at which different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the crystal lattice is called what?
Ground Truth Answers: particular closure temperatureclosure temperatureclosure temperature
Prediction:
What type of ratios are used in geochronologic and thermochronologic studies?
Ground Truth Answers: isotope ratios of radioactive elementsisotopeisotopeisotope
Prediction:
How can you find the absolute age of sedimentary rock units which do not contain radioactive isotopes?
Ground Truth Answers: Dating of lava and volcanic ash layers found within a stratigraphic sequenceDating of lava and volcanic ash layersstratigraphic sequenceDating of lava and volcanic ash layers found within a stratigraphic sequence
Prediction:
What are crystal lattices measured in?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is one thing measuring in crystal lattices shows in ash layers?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is one thing ash layers can be used to determine in a crystal lattice?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does pluton emplacement give after a stratigraphic sequence is measured in minerals?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What studies use pluton emplacement?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the crystal lattice made out of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does paleotopography study?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the point that radiometric isotopes begin diffusing called?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What cannot be used to find the age of pluton emplacement?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What determines the temperature profile outside of the crust?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When rock units are placed under horizontal compression, they shorten and become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds, do not significantly change in volume, this is accomplished in two primary ways: through faulting and folding. In the shallow crust, where brittle deformation can occur, thrust faults form, which cause deeper rock to move on top of shallower rock. Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the principle of superposition, this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along faults can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically, and fold instead of faulting. These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating "antiforms", or where it buckles downwards, creating "synforms". If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called anticlines and synclines, respectively. If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms and synforms.
Rock units become thicker and shorten when placed under this type of compression.
Ground Truth Answers: horizontal compressionhorizontalhorizontal
Prediction:
Where do thrust faults form?
Ground Truth Answers: In the shallow crustshallow crustshallow crust
Prediction:
When rock folds deep in the Earth it can fold one of two ways, when it buckles upwards it creates what?
Ground Truth Answers: antiformsantiformsantiforms
Prediction:
When rock folds deep in the Earth it can fold one of two ways, when it buckles downwards it creates what?
Ground Truth Answers: synformssynformssynforms
Prediction:
If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called what?
Ground Truth Answers: anticlines and synclinesoverturned anticlineanticlines and synclines
Prediction:
What happens when syncline is horizontally compressed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are two ways that mud doesn't change in volume?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happens because younger rock is deeper?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happens deeper in the Earth where brittle deformation occurrs?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are two types of faults that happen in the shallow crust?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What kind of unit tends to change its volume?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What principle states that rocks deeper in the layer tend to be younger?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What behaviour causes rocks deeper in the earth to fault instead of folding?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happens to rock units under vertical pressure?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are buckles facing downwards in a fault called?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Extension causes the rock units as a whole to become longer and thinner. This is primarily accomplished through normal faulting and through the ductile stretching and thinning. Normal faults drop rock units that are higher below those that are lower. This typically results in younger units being placed below older units. Stretching of units can result in their thinning; in fact, there is a location within the Maria Fold and Thrust Belt in which the entire sedimentary sequence of the Grand Canyon can be seen over a length of less than a meter. Rocks at the depth to be ductilely stretched are often also metamorphosed. These stretched rocks can also pinch into lenses, known as boudins, after the French word for "sausage", because of their visual similarity.
This causes the rock unit as a whole to become longer and thinner.
Ground Truth Answers: ExtensionExtensionExtension
Prediction:
Stretched rocks that pinch into lenses are known by what word?
Ground Truth Answers: boudinsboudinsboudins
Prediction:
Where can the entire sedimentary sequence of the Grand Canyon be seen in less than the length of a meter?
Ground Truth Answers: within the Maria Fold and Thrust BeltMaria Fold and Thrust BeltMaria Fold and Thrust Belt
Prediction:
Rocks that are a depth where they are ductilely stretched are also often what?
Ground Truth Answers: metamorphosedmetamorphosedmetamorphosed
Prediction:
What causes rock extension?
Ground Truth Answers: normal faulting and through the ductile stretching and thinningnormal faultingnormal faulting and through the ductile stretching and thinning
Prediction:
What is another word for thinning rocks in French?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where can lower rocks of the Grand Canyon be seen?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What happens to sediment layers that are also thinning?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does extension do to sediment that is less than a meter long?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How does sediment make rock fall?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What places younger units above older units?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How long is a boudin?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How long is the Maria Fold?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where does extension occur?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What was the stretched sequence in the Grand Canyon named?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The addition of new rock units, both depositionally and intrusively, often occurs during deformation. Faulting and other deformational processes result in the creation of topographic gradients, causing material on the rock unit that is increasing in elevation to be eroded by hillslopes and channels. These sediments are deposited on the rock unit that is going down. Continual motion along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of sediment, and continues to create accommodation space for the material to deposit. Deformational events are often also associated with volcanism and igneous activity. Volcanic ashes and lavas accumulate on the surface, and igneous intrusions enter from below. Dikes, long, planar igneous intrusions, enter along cracks, and therefore often form in large numbers in areas that are being actively deformed. This can result in the emplacement of dike swarms, such as those that are observable across the Canadian shield, or rings of dikes around the lava tube of a volcano.
What is another word for long, planar igneous intrusions?
Ground Truth Answers: DikesDikesDikes
Prediction:
Where do dikes form?
Ground Truth Answers: in areas that are being actively deformedareas that are being actively deformedin areas that are being actively deformed
Prediction:
What type of gradients are formed by faulting and other deformational processes?
Ground Truth Answers: topographic gradientstopographictopographic
Prediction:
What activity maintains topographic gradients?
Ground Truth Answers: Continual motion along the faultContinual motionContinual motion along the fault
Prediction:
What events are often associated with volcanism and igneous activity?
Ground Truth Answers: Deformational eventsDeformationalDeformational
Prediction:
What are two ways lava tubes are added during deformation?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
During what process are lava tubes expanded?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What two types of activity are associated with the Canadian shield?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does motion along dike swarms maintain?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does continuous motion along dike swarms create for sediment to be deposited?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What causes hillslopes and channels to erode?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The creation of topographic gradients causes what?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What causes the topographic gradients to collapse?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is another name for a deformational event?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is another name for a dike swarm?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
All of these processes do not necessarily occur in a single environment, and do not necessarily occur in a single order. The Hawaiian Islands, for example, consist almost entirely of layered basaltic lava flows. The sedimentary sequences of the mid-continental United States and the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States contain almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rocks that have remained in place since Cambrian time. Other areas are much more geologically complex. In the southwestern United States, sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks have been metamorphosed, faulted, foliated, and folded. Even older rocks, such as the Acasta gneiss of the Slave craton in northwestern Canada, the oldest known rock in the world have been metamorphosed to the point where their origin is undiscernable without laboratory analysis. In addition, these processes can occur in stages. In many places, the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States being a very visible example, the lower rock units were metamorphosed and deformed, and then deformation ended and the upper, undeformed units were deposited. Although any amount of rock emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the geological history of an area.
The Hawaiian Islands are made up almost entirely of what?
Ground Truth Answers: layered basaltic lava flowslayered basaltic lava flowslayered basaltic lava flows
Prediction:
What is the oldest known rock in the world?
Ground Truth Answers: Acasta gneissAcasta gneissAcasta gneiss of the Slave craton in northwestern Canada
Prediction:
What type of rock is found at the Grand Canyon?
Ground Truth Answers: sedimentary rockssedimentarysedimentary
Prediction:
The rocks at the Grand Canyon have been in place since when?
Ground Truth Answers: Cambrian timeCambrian timeCambrian time
Prediction:
Where is the oldest known rock in the world located?
Ground Truth Answers: Slave craton in northwestern CanadaCanadanorthwestern Canada
Prediction:
What is Hawaii made of that has existed since Cambrian time?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What has happened to sedimentary, volcanic and intrusive rock in the Grand Canyon?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What has happened to the the rock in the Grand Canyon that is the oldest rock in the world?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is hard to find about the origin of Grand Canyon rock unless analyzed in a lab?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What area in northwestern Canada has almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rock?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the youngest rock to metamorphosize?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How long have the intrusive rocks in the southwestern US been around?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the Grand Canyon not an example of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is complex about the layering of the Hawaiian islands?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What was formed after the undeformed units were deposited?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Geologists use a number of field, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to petrology (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation). In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; investigate past and current life and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate the subsurface.
What is petrology?
Ground Truth Answers: the study of rocksstudy of rocksthe study of rocks
Prediction:
What is stratigraphy?
Ground Truth Answers: the study of sedimentary layersstudy of sedimentary layersthe study of sedimentary layers
Prediction:
What is structural geology?
Ground Truth Answers: the study of positions of rock units and their deformationstudy of positions of rock units and their deformationthe study of positions of rock units and their deformation
Prediction:
What modern formations do geologists study?
Ground Truth Answers: modern soilssoils, rivers, landscapes, and glacierssoils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers
Prediction:
What do scientists use to determine the process of river movement?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is another word for the study of past and current life?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What method studies the positions of glaciers and their subsurface?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are sedimentary layers used to investigate?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are biogeochemical pathways used to decipher?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do Geologists use to study processes outside of the earth?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are used in non-typical investigations?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are biogeochemical pathways?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do geologists use to investigate the surface?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What ancient property do geologists study?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
In addition to identifying rocks in the field, petrologists identify rock samples in the laboratory. Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are through optical microscopy and by using an electron microprobe. In an optical mineralogy analysis, thin sections of rock samples are analyzed through a petrographic microscope, where the minerals can be identified through their different properties in plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, including their birefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interference properties with a conoscopic lens. In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals. Stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into the geochemical evolution of rock units.
What do petrologists use electron microprobes in the laboratory for?
Ground Truth Answers: identifying rocksidentifying rocksidentifying rocks
Prediction:
What properties are analyzed with a conoscopic lens by petrologists?
Ground Truth Answers: birefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interference propertiesbirefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interferencebirefringence, pleochroism, twinning, and interference
Prediction:
Stable and radioactive isotope studies provide insight into what?
Ground Truth Answers: geochemical evolution of rock unitsgeochemical evolution of rock unitsthe geochemical evolution of rock units
Prediction:
Petrologists identify rock samples in the field and where else?
Ground Truth Answers: the laboratorylaboratorylaboratory
Prediction:
What type of microscope is used by petrologists?
Ground Truth Answers: petrographic microscopepetrographicpetrographic
Prediction:
Where is cross-polarized light identified by petrologists?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are two methods for identifying plane-polarized light in the lab?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What equipment is used to identify individual crystals?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What properties are there in crystals?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is used to view the properties of crystals?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do unstable isotope studies indicate?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does optical microscopy identify about individual locations?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What kind of rock samples are analyzed by an electron microprobe?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What methods do petrologists use to examine rocks out in the field?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What lens is used to identify chemical composition?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Petrologists can also use fluid inclusion data and perform high temperature and pressure physical experiments to understand the temperatures and pressures at which different mineral phases appear, and how they change through igneous and metamorphic processes. This research can be extrapolated to the field to understand metamorphic processes and the conditions of crystallization of igneous rocks. This work can also help to explain processes that occur within the Earth, such as subduction and magma chamber evolution.
How else can petrologists understand the pressures at which different mineral phases appear?
Ground Truth Answers: pressure physical experimentsfluid inclusion datafluid inclusion data
Prediction:
How else can petrologists understand the temperature at which different mineral phases appear?
Ground Truth Answers: physical experimentshigh temperature and pressure physical experimentspressure physical experiments
Prediction:
Data from physical experiments can be extrapolated to the field to understand what processes?
Ground Truth Answers: metamorphic processesmetamorphicmetamorphic
Prediction:
What do petrologists use to understand magma chamber crystallization?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What experiments are used to understand how magma flows?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How does the flow of magma change?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What else can magma flows be used to understand?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can experiments be used to explain beside magma crystallization?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does the magma chamber evolution explain?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What processes occur above the earth?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How do physical experiments explain fluid inclusion data?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Research regarding metamorphic processes helps explain what about pressure?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geologic samples to observe the fabric within the rocks which gives information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks. They also plot and combine measurements of geological structures in order to better understand the orientations of faults and folds in order to reconstruct the history of rock deformation in the area. In addition, they perform analog and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.
What type of geologists give information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks?
Ground Truth Answers: Structural geologistsStructuralStructural
Prediction:
How do structural geologists observe the fabric within the rocks?
Ground Truth Answers: microscopic analysis of oriented thin sectionsmicroscopic analysisuse microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geologic samples
Prediction:
In order to better understand the orientations of faults and folds, structural geologists do what with measurements of geological structures?
Ground Truth Answers: plot and combineplot and combineplot and combine
Prediction:
What kind of experiments of rock deformation do structural geologists perform?
Ground Truth Answers: analog and numerical experimentsanalog and numericalanalog and numerical
Prediction:
In what setting do structural geologists reconstruct the crystalline structure of rocks?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What experiments are used to reconstruct rock fabric?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why do geologists plot crystals under a microscope?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What information does history of rock deformation give about crystal structure?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do structural geologists do with measurements of fabric in crystals?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does the orientation of the thin sections tell geologists?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How do geologists identify the measurements of a geological structure?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does the deformation of a rock tell geologists?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What experiment can be performed on large settings that cannot be on small settings?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What instrument is used to perform analogy and numerical experiments?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Among the most well-known experiments in structural geology are those involving orogenic wedges, which are zones in which mountains are built along convergent tectonic plate boundaries. In the analog versions of these experiments, horizontal layers of sand are pulled along a lower surface into a back stop, which results in realistic-looking patterns of faulting and the growth of a critically tapered (all angles remain the same) orogenic wedge. Numerical models work in the same way as these analog models, though they are often more sophisticated and can include patterns of erosion and uplift in the mountain belt. This helps to show the relationship between erosion and the shape of the mountain range. These studies can also give useful information about pathways for metamorphism through pressure, temperature, space, and time.
Zones in which mountains are built along convergent tectonic plate boundaries are called what?
Ground Truth Answers: orogenic wedgesorogenic wedgesorogenic wedges
Prediction:
What are among the most well known experiments in structural geology?
Ground Truth Answers: those involving orogenic wedgesorogenic wedgesinvolving orogenic wedges
Prediction:
Horizontal layers of what are pulled along a surface into a back stop in analog versions of orogenic wedge experiments?
Ground Truth Answers: sandsandsand
Prediction:
What does critically tapered mean?
Ground Truth Answers: all angles remain the sameall angles remain the sameall angles remain the same
Prediction:
Which is more sophisticated, numericals model or an analog models of orogenic wedges?
Ground Truth Answers: Numerical modelsNumericalNumerical models
Prediction:
What do orogenic wedges work in the same way as?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are analog models often considered as compared to orogenic wedges?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do analog models include in the pathway for metamorphism?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How do studies give information about tectonic plate boundaries?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are some of the most well known experiments in patterns of faulting?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are layers of sand pulled out of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How are analog models different than numerical models?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are horizontal layers of sand called?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do studies on metamorphism through pressure help clarify?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does an analog model have that a numerical model doesn not?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
In the laboratory, stratigraphers analyze samples of stratigraphic sections that can be returned from the field, such as those from drill cores. Stratigraphers also analyze data from geophysical surveys that show the locations of stratigraphic units in the subsurface. Geophysical data and well logs can be combined to produce a better view of the subsurface, and stratigraphers often use computer programs to do this in three dimensions. Stratigraphers can then use these data to reconstruct ancient processes occurring on the surface of the Earth, interpret past environments, and locate areas for water, coal, and hydrocarbon extraction.
The analysis of stratigraphic sections such as drill cores is done by who?
Ground Truth Answers: stratigraphersstratigraphersstratigraphers
Prediction:
What type of surveys show the location of stratigraphic units in the subsurface?
Ground Truth Answers: geophysical surveysgeophysicalgeophysical
Prediction:
What can be combined with geophysical data to produce a better view of the subsurface?
Ground Truth Answers: well logswell logswell logs
Prediction:
What tool do stratigraphers use to see their data in three dimensions?
Ground Truth Answers: computer programscomputer programscomputer programs
Prediction:
Stratigraphers try to locate areas for what types of extraction?
Ground Truth Answers: water, coal, and hydrocarbon extractionhydrocarbonhydrocarbon
Prediction:
What do computers analyze in the lab?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is an example of what is analyzed by computers in the lab?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do drill cores show about water location?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can drill cores and ancient processes be combined to show?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do computers use coal to reconstruct?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are taken from the laboratory into the field?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What shows the location of drill cores?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What computer program allows stratigraphers to view the subsurface in three dimensions?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are well logs?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are ancient processes used to do?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
In the laboratory, biostratigraphers analyze rock samples from outcrop and drill cores for the fossils found in them. These fossils help scientists to date the core and to understand the depositional environment in which the rock units formed. Geochronologists precisely date rocks within the stratigraphic section in order to provide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of deposition. Magnetic stratigraphers look for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rock units within the drill cores. Other scientists perform stable isotope studies on the rocks to gain information about past climate.
Who analyzes rock samples from drill cores in the lab?
Ground Truth Answers: biostratigraphersbiostratigraphersbiostratigraphers
Prediction:
Who dates rocks, precisely, within the stratigraphic section?
Ground Truth Answers: GeochronologistsGeochronologistsGeochronologists
Prediction:
Why is it important to precisely date rocks within the stratigraphic section?
Ground Truth Answers: provide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of depositiongain information about past climateprovide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of deposition
Prediction:
What types of scientists looks for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rocks within the drill cores?
Ground Truth Answers: Magnetic stratigraphersMagnetic stratigraphersMagnetic stratigraphers
Prediction:
What do geochronologists analyze fossils from drill cores for?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do outcrop samples help magnetic stratigraphers to date?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do biostratigraphers want to understand about past climate?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do magnetic straitigraphers precisely date?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do geochronologists look for in drill cores?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are found in fossils?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What helps scientists to date fossils?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do Magnetic stratigraphers use isotopes to study?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where is the stratigraphic section?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What type of studies do Geochronologists perform?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Some modern scholars, such as Fielding H. Garrison, are of the opinion that the origin of the science of geology can be traced to Persia after the Muslim conquests had come to an end. Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was one of the earliest Persian geologists, whose works included the earliest writings on the geology of India, hypothesizing that the Indian subcontinent was once a sea. Drawing from Greek and Indian scientific literature that were not destroyed by the Muslim conquests, the Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981–1037) proposed detailed explanations for the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes, and other topics central to modern geology, which provided an essential foundation for the later development of the science. In China, the polymath Shen Kuo (1031–1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of fossil animal shells in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.
Fielding H. Garrison believes that the science of geology can be traced to where?
Ground Truth Answers: PersiaPersiaPersia after the Muslim conquests had come to an end
Prediction:
Living from 973–1048 CE he was one of the earliest Persian geologists, what was his name?
Ground Truth Answers: Abu al-Rayhan al-BiruniAbu al-Rayhan al-BiruniAbu al-Rayhan al-Biruni
Prediction:
In China, this person inferred that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by silt deposition, what was his name?
Ground Truth Answers: Shen KuoShen KuoShen Kuo
Prediction:
This person proposed explanations for the origins of earthquakes and the formation of mountains, what was his name?
Ground Truth Answers: Ibn SinaIbn SinaIbn Sina
Prediction:
What prompted Shen Kuo to believe the land was formed by erosion of the mountains?
Ground Truth Answers: his observation of fossil animal shellsfossil animal shellsbased on his observation of fossil animal shells in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean
Prediction:
Where did Ibna Sina believe the origin of geology science was?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
One of the earliest writings on India written by Fielding H. Garrison hypothesized what?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What literature did Fielding H. Garrison draw from that wasn't destroyed by Muslims?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did Ibn Sina, who lived from 1031-1095 base his hypothesis for land formation on?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How did Fielding H. Garrison believe land was formed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where is Fielding H. Garrison from?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What was Shen Kuo's religion?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was Greek and Indian literature destroyed by conquests?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni base his writings on?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was Garrison born?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
James Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed in order to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795 (Vol. 1, Vol. 2).
Who is viewed as the first modern geologist?
Ground Truth Answers: James HuttonJames HuttonJames Hutton
Prediction:
In 1785 James Hutton presented what paper to the Royal Society of Edinburgh?
Ground Truth Answers: Theory of the EarthTheory of the EarthTheory of the Earth
Prediction:
James Hutton published a 2 volume version of his theories in what year?
Ground Truth Answers: 179517951795
Prediction:
What was the main idea of James Hutton's paper?
Ground Truth Answers: Earth must be much older than had previously been supposedEarth must be much older than had previously been supposedthe Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed
Prediction:
When was James Hutton born?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was the Royal Society of Edinburgh founded?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did the Royal Society of Edinburgh present in 1785?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What was the theory the Royal Society presented?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why did the Royal Society think the Earth was older than previously thought?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was James Hutton born?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was the Royal Society of Edinburgh formed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Why did Hutton believe the earth needed to be much younger than previously believed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who was the first geologist?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When did Hutton die?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The first geological map of the U.S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure. In 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him, the Allegheny Mountains being crossed and recrossed some 50 times. The results of his unaided labours were submitted to the American Philosophical Society in a memoir entitled Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map, and published in the Society's Transactions, together with the nation's first geological map. This antedates William Smith's geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks.
Who produced the first geological map of the U.S.?
Ground Truth Answers: William MaclureWilliam MaclureWilliam Maclure
Prediction:
In what year was the first geological map of the U.S. produced?
Ground Truth Answers: 180918091809
Prediction:
In what year did William Maclure begin the process of creating the first geological map of the U.S.?
Ground Truth Answers: 180718071807
Prediction:
To whom did William Maclure submit the map?
Ground Truth Answers: the American Philosophical SocietyAmerican Philosophical SocietyAmerican Philosophical Society
Prediction:
What was the memoir entitled which was submitted to the American Philosophical Society?
Ground Truth Answers: Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological MapObservations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological MapObservations on the Geology of the United States
Prediction:
When was the American Philosophical Society created?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did the American Philosophical Society produce in 1809?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did William Smith cross about 50 times?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What memoir did William Smith write that was published in the Society's Transactions?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did William Smith do in the US?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was the first geological map of the entire earth created?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How many times did Maclure cross the Union states?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who published William Smith's geological map?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When did the American Philosophical Society enlist Maclure to make the geological survey?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How many years later was Maclure's memoir published after the map?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology, in 1830. This book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today. In contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time.
First published by Sir Charles Lyell in 1830 this book was called what?
Ground Truth Answers: Principles of GeologyPrinciples of GeologyPrinciples of Geology
Prediction:
What doctrine did the doctrine of the Principles of Geology successfully promote?
Ground Truth Answers: uniformitarianismuniformitarianismuniformitarianism
Prediction:
Which theory states that slow geological processes are still occurring today, and have occurred throughout Earth's history?
Ground Truth Answers: uniformitarianismuniformitarianismuniformitarianism
Prediction:
Which theory states that Earth's features remained unchanged after forming in one single catastrophic event?
Ground Truth Answers: catastrophismcatastrophismcatastrophism
Prediction:
Which famous evolutionist was influenced by the book Principles of Geology?
Ground Truth Answers: Charles DarwinCharles DarwinCharles Darwin
Prediction:
What did Charles Darwin publish in 1830?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did Charles Darwin successfully promote?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does catastrophism believe is still occurring today?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did people think about catastrophism during Charles Darwin's time?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What did Hutton believe was formed in one catastrophic event?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What book did Darwin publish in 1830?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What idea by Charles Lyell was widely accepted at the time of publication?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When was Sir Charles Lyell born?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Whom was Charles Lyell influenced by?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Lyell's book failed to publicize what view?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction: