Computational complexity theory is a branch of the theory of computation in theoretical computer science that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each other. A computational problem is understood to be a task that is in principle amenable to being solved by a computer, which is equivalent to stating that the problem may be solved by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm.
What branch of theoretical computer science deals with broadly classifying computational problems by difficulty and class of relationship?
Ground Truth Answers: Computational complexity theoryComputational complexity theoryComputational complexity theory
Prediction:
By what main attribute are computational problems classified utilizing computational complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: inherent difficultytheir inherent difficultyinherent difficulty
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What is the term for a task that generally lends itself to being solved by a computer?
Ground Truth Answers: computational problemsA computational problemcomputational problem
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What is computational complexity principle?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What branch of theoretical computer class deals with broadly classifying computational problems by difficulty and class of relationship?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is understood to be a task that is in principle not amendable to being solved by a computer?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What cannot be solved by mechanical application of mathematical steps?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is a manual application of mathematical steps?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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A problem is regarded as inherently difficult if its solution requires significant resources, whatever the algorithm used. The theory formalizes this intuition, by introducing mathematical models of computation to study these problems and quantifying the amount of resources needed to solve them, such as time and storage. Other complexity measures are also used, such as the amount of communication (used in communication complexity), the number of gates in a circuit (used in circuit complexity) and the number of processors (used in parallel computing). One of the roles of computational complexity theory is to determine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot do.
What measure of a computational problem broadly defines the inherent difficulty of the solution?
Ground Truth Answers: if its solution requires significant resourcesits solution requires significant resourcesif its solution requires significant resources
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What method is used to intuitively assess or quantify the amount of resources required to solve a computational problem?
Ground Truth Answers: mathematical models of computationmathematical models of computationmathematical models of computation
Prediction:
What are two basic primary resources used to guage complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: time and storagetime and storagetime and storage
Prediction:
What unit is measured to determine circuit complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: number of gates in a circuitnumber of gates in a circuitnumber of gates
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What practical role does defining the complexity of problems play in everyday computing?
Ground Truth Answers: determine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot dowhat computers can and cannot dodetermine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot do
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What measure of computational problem broadly defines the inherent simplicity of the solution?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What method is not used to intuitively assess or quantify the amount of resources required to solve a computational problem??
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are three basic primary resources used to gauge complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What unit is measured to determine circuit simplicity?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What number is used in perpendicular computing?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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Closely related fields in theoretical computer science are analysis of algorithms and computability theory. A key distinction between analysis of algorithms and computational complexity theory is that the former is devoted to analyzing the amount of resources needed by a particular algorithm to solve a problem, whereas the latter asks a more general question about all possible algorithms that could be used to solve the same problem. More precisely, it tries to classify problems that can or cannot be solved with appropriately restricted resources. In turn, imposing restrictions on the available resources is what distinguishes computational complexity from computability theory: the latter theory asks what kind of problems can, in principle, be solved algorithmically.
What two fields of theoretical computer science closely mirror computational complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: analysis of algorithms and computability theoryanalysis of algorithms and computability theoryanalysis of algorithms and computability theory
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What field of computer science analyzes the resource requirements of a specific algorithm isolated unto itself within a given problem?
Ground Truth Answers: analysis of algorithmsanalysis of algorithmsanalysis of algorithms
Prediction:
What field of computer science analyzes all possible algorithms in aggregate to determine the resource requirements needed to solve to a given problem?
Ground Truth Answers: computational complexity theorycomputational complexity theorycomputational complexity theory
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What field of computer science is primarily concerned with determining the likelihood of whether or not a problem can ultimately be solved using algorithms?
Ground Truth Answers: computability theorycomputability theorycomputability theory
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What are two fields of theoretical computer science that closely mirror computational simplicity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is not the key distinction between analysis of algorithms and computational complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the process of analyzing the amount of resources needed by a particular algorithm to solve a hypothesis?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the process that asks a more specific question about all possible algorithms that could not be used to solve the same problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What process classifies problems that can and cannot be solved with approximately unlimited resources?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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A computational problem can be viewed as an infinite collection of instances together with a solution for every instance. The input string for a computational problem is referred to as a problem instance, and should not be confused with the problem itself. In computational complexity theory, a problem refers to the abstract question to be solved. In contrast, an instance of this problem is a rather concrete utterance, which can serve as the input for a decision problem. For example, consider the problem of primality testing. The instance is a number (e.g. 15) and the solution is "yes" if the number is prime and "no" otherwise (in this case "no"). Stated another way, the instance is a particular input to the problem, and the solution is the output corresponding to the given input.
What is the name given to the input string of a computational problem?
Ground Truth Answers: problem instancea problem instanceproblem instance
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In computational complexity theory, what is the term given to describe the baseline abstract question needing to be solved?
Ground Truth Answers: the problema problemproblem
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Is a problem instance typically characterized as abstract or concrete?
Ground Truth Answers: concreteconcreteabstract
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What is another name for any given measure of input associated with a problem?
Ground Truth Answers: instancesthe instanceinstance
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What is the general term used to describe the output to any given input in a problem instance?
Ground Truth Answers: solutionthe solutionsolution
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What can be viewed as a limited collection of instances together with a solution for every instance?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the name given to the input string of a computational solution?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What term refers to the concrete question to be solved?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the output corresponding to the given question?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is a particular measure input associated with the a theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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To further highlight the difference between a problem and an instance, consider the following instance of the decision version of the traveling salesman problem: Is there a route of at most 2000 kilometres passing through all of Germany's 15 largest cities? The quantitative answer to this particular problem instance is of little use for solving other instances of the problem, such as asking for a round trip through all sites in Milan whose total length is at most 10 km. For this reason, complexity theory addresses computational problems and not particular problem instances.
By how many kilometers does the traveling salesman problem seek to classify a route between the 15 largest cities in Germany?
Ground Truth Answers: 200020002000
Prediction:
What is one example of an instance that the quantitative answer to the traveling salesman problem fails to answer?
Ground Truth Answers: round trip through all sites in Milanasking for a round trip through all sites in Milan whose total length is at most 10 kma round trip through all sites in Milan whose total length is at most 10 km
Prediction:
What does computational complexity theory most specifically seek to answer?
Ground Truth Answers: computational problemscomputational problemscomputational problems
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How many miles does the traveling salesman problem seek to classify a route between the 15 smallest cities in Germany?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the qualitative answer to this particular problem instance?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is one example of an instance that the qualitative answer to the traveling salesman fails to answer?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What does computational simplicity theory most specifically seek to answer?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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When considering computational problems, a problem instance is a string over an alphabet. Usually, the alphabet is taken to be the binary alphabet (i.e., the set {0,1}), and thus the strings are bitstrings. As in a real-world computer, mathematical objects other than bitstrings must be suitably encoded. For example, integers can be represented in binary notation, and graphs can be encoded directly via their adjacency matrices, or by encoding their adjacency lists in binary.In a computational problem, what can be described as a string over an alphabet?
Ground Truth Answers: problem instancea problem instanceproblem instance
Prediction:
What is the name of the alphabet is most commonly used in a problem instance?
Ground Truth Answers: binary alphabetbinarybinary
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What is another term for the string of a problem instance?
Ground Truth Answers: bitstringsbitstringsbitstrings
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In the encoding of mathematical objects, what is the way in which integers are commonly expressed?
Ground Truth Answers: binary notationbinary notationbinary notation
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What is one way in which graphs can be encoded?
Ground Truth Answers: adjacency matricesdirectly via their adjacency matrices
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What is a string over a Greek number when considering a computational problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the name of the alphabet that is rarely used in a problem instance?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is another term for the the string of a problem question?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is represented by non-binary notation in the encoding of mathematical objects?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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How can graphs be encoded indirectly?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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Decision problems are one of the central objects of study in computational complexity theory. A decision problem is a special type of computational problem whose answer is either yes or no, or alternately either 1 or 0. A decision problem can be viewed as a formal language, where the members of the language are instances whose output is yes, and the non-members are those instances whose output is no. The objective is to decide, with the aid of an algorithm, whether a given input string is a member of the formal language under consideration. If the algorithm deciding this problem returns the answer yes, the algorithm is said to accept the input string, otherwise it is said to reject the input.
What kind of problems are one of the main topics studied in computational complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: Decision problemsDecision problemsDecision
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What are the two simple word responses to a decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: yes or noyes or noyes or no
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What are the two integer responses to a decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: 1 or 01 or 01 or 0
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What will the output be for a member of the language of a decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: yesyesyes
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What answer denotes that an algorithm has accepted an input string?
Ground Truth Answers: yesyesyes
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What kind of solutions are one of the central objects of study in computational complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is a typical type of computational problem whose answer is either yer or no?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What can be viewed as an informal language where the language instances whose input is yes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What are the three integer responses to a decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What answer denotes that a solution has accepted an input string?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
An example of a decision problem is the following. The input is an arbitrary graph. The problem consists in deciding whether the given graph is connected, or not. The formal language associated with this decision problem is then the set of all connected graphs—of course, to obtain a precise definition of this language, one has to decide how graphs are encoded as binary strings.
What kind of graph is an example of an input used in a decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: arbitrary grapharbitraryarbitrary
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What is the term for the set of all connected graphs related to this decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: formal languageThe formal languageThe formal language associated with this decision problem
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What encoding decision needs to be made in order to determine an exact definition of the formal language?
Ground Truth Answers: how graphs are encoded as binary stringshow graphs are encoded as binary stringshow graphs are encoded as binary strings
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What type of graph is an example of an output used in a decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the term for the set of all unconnected graphs related to this decision problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What encoding decision needs to be made in order to determine an inaccurate definition of the formal language?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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How does one obtain an indefinite definition of this language?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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A function problem is a computational problem where a single output (of a total function) is expected for every input, but the output is more complex than that of a decision problem, that is, it isn't just yes or no. Notable examples include the traveling salesman problem and the integer factorization problem.
A function problem is an example of what?
Ground Truth Answers: a computational problema computational problema computational problem
Prediction:
How many outputs are expected for each input in a function problem?
Ground Truth Answers: a single outputsinglesingle
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The traveling salesman problem is an example of what type of problem?
Ground Truth Answers: A function problemfunctionfunction problem
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In addition to the traveling salesman problem, what is another example of a function problem?
Ground Truth Answers: the integer factorization probleminteger factorizationinteger factorization problem
Prediction:
Is the output of a functional problem typically characterized by a simple or complex answer?
Ground Truth Answers: complexcomplexcomplex
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What is a computational solution where a single input is expected for every input?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is expected where a computational problems offers multiple outputs are expected for every input?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is a function solution an example of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What are other irrelevant examples of a function problem>
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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Is the output of a functional solution typically characterized by a simple or complex answer?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
It is tempting to think that the notion of function problems is much richer than the notion of decision problems. However, this is not really the case, since function problems can be recast as decision problems. For example, the multiplication of two integers can be expressed as the set of triples (a, b, c) such that the relation a × b = c holds. Deciding whether a given triple is a member of this set corresponds to solving the problem of multiplying two numbers.
How can function problems typically be restated?
Ground Truth Answers: decision problemsas decision problemsas decision problems
Prediction:
If two integers are multiplied and output a value, what is this expression set called?
Ground Truth Answers: set of triplestriplethe set of triples (a, b, c) such that the relation a × b = c holds
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What can not be restated as decision problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the expression set called where three integers are multiplied?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What corresponds to solving the problem of multiplying three numbers/
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
To measure the difficulty of solving a computational problem, one may wish to see how much time the best algorithm requires to solve the problem. However, the running time may, in general, depend on the instance. In particular, larger instances will require more time to solve. Thus the time required to solve a problem (or the space required, or any measure of complexity) is calculated as a function of the size of the instance. This is usually taken to be the size of the input in bits. Complexity theory is interested in how algorithms scale with an increase in the input size. For instance, in the problem of finding whether a graph is connected, how much more time does it take to solve a problem for a graph with 2n vertices compared to the time taken for a graph with n vertices?
What is a commonly used measurement used to determine the complexity of a computational problem?
Ground Truth Answers: how much time the best algorithm requires to solve the problemtimetime
Prediction:
What is one variable on which the running time may be contingent?
Ground Truth Answers: the instancethe instancethe size of the instance
Prediction:
How is the time needed to obtain the solution to a problem calculated?
Ground Truth Answers: as a function of the size of the instanceas a function of the size of the instancea function of the size of the instance
Prediction:
In what unit is the size of the input measured?
Ground Truth Answers: bitsbitsbits
Prediction:
Complexity theory seeks to define the relationship between the scale of algorithms with respect to what other variable?
Ground Truth Answers: an increase in the input sizeinput sizeinput size
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How does one measure the simplicity of a computational problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is one variable which the running of time be not be contingent?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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How is the time needed to obtain the question to a problem calculated?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is interested in how algorithms scale with a decrease in the input size?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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How is time not required to solve a problem calculated?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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If the input size is n, the time taken can be expressed as a function of n. Since the time taken on different inputs of the same size can be different, the worst-case time complexity T(n) is defined to be the maximum time taken over all inputs of size n. If T(n) is a polynomial in n, then the algorithm is said to be a polynomial time algorithm. Cobham's thesis says that a problem can be solved with a feasible amount of resources if it admits a polynomial time algorithm.
Whose thesis states that the solution to a problem is solvable with reasonable resources assuming it allows for a polynomial time algorithm?
Ground Truth Answers: Cobham's thesisCobham'sCobham
Prediction:
If input size is is equal to n, what can respectively be assumed is the function of n?
Ground Truth Answers: the time takenthe time takenthe time taken
Prediction:
What term corresponds to the maximum measurement of time across all functions of n?
Ground Truth Answers: worst-case time complexityworst-case time complexitythe worst-case time complexity
Prediction:
How is worst-case time complexity written as an expression?
Ground Truth Answers: T(n)T(n)T(n)
Prediction:
Assuming that T represents a polynomial in T(n), what is the term given to the corresponding algorithm?
Ground Truth Answers: polynomial time algorithmpolynomial timepolynomial time algorithm
Prediction:
How is time taken expressed as a function of x?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Whose hypothesis states the the solution to a problem is solvable with reasonable resources assuming it allows for monoinomial time algorithm?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What term corresponds to the minimum measurement of the time across all functions of n?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How is best-case time complexity written as an expression?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is the term given to the corresponding algorithm assuming that T represents a mononominal in T(n)?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
A Turing machine is a mathematical model of a general computing machine. It is a theoretical device that manipulates symbols contained on a strip of tape. Turing machines are not intended as a practical computing technology, but rather as a thought experiment representing a computing machine—anything from an advanced supercomputer to a mathematician with a pencil and paper. It is believed that if a problem can be solved by an algorithm, there exists a Turing machine that solves the problem. Indeed, this is the statement of the Church–Turing thesis. Furthermore, it is known that everything that can be computed on other models of computation known to us today, such as a RAM machine, Conway's Game of Life, cellular automata or any programming language can be computed on a Turing machine. Since Turing machines are easy to analyze mathematically, and are believed to be as powerful as any other model of computation, the Turing machine is the most commonly used model in complexity theory.
What is the term for a mathematical model that theoretically represents a general computing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: A Turing machineA Turing machineTuring machine
Prediction:
It is generally assumed that a Turing machine can solve anything capable of also being solved using what?
Ground Truth Answers: an algorithman algorithman algorithm
Prediction:
What is the most commonplace model utilized in complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: the Turing machinethe Turing machineTuring machine
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What does a Turing machine handle on a strip of tape?
Ground Truth Answers: symbolssymbolssymbols
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What a scientific model of a general computing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is a scientific device that manipulates symbols contained on a strip of tape?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What are intended as a practical computing technology?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
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What is a scientific experiment that can solve a problem by algorithms?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
A deterministic Turing machine is the most basic Turing machine, which uses a fixed set of rules to determine its future actions. A probabilistic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an extra supply of random bits. The ability to make probabilistic decisions often helps algorithms solve problems more efficiently. Algorithms that use random bits are called randomized algorithms. A non-deterministic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an added feature of non-determinism, which allows a Turing machine to have multiple possible future actions from a given state. One way to view non-determinism is that the Turing machine branches into many possible computational paths at each step, and if it solves the problem in any of these branches, it is said to have solved the problem. Clearly, this model is not meant to be a physically realizable model, it is just a theoretically interesting abstract machine that gives rise to particularly interesting complexity classes. For examples, see non-deterministic algorithm.
What is generally considered to be the most basic iteration of a Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: A deterministic Turing machinedeterministicdeterministic Turing machine
Prediction:
What fixed set of factors determine the actions of a deterministic Turing machine
Ground Truth Answers: rulesrulesa fixed set of rules to determine its future actions
Prediction:
What is the term used to identify a deterministic Turing machine that has additional random bits?
Ground Truth Answers: A probabilistic Turing machineprobabilisticprobabilistic Turing machine
Prediction:
What type of Turing machine is capable of multiple actions and extends into a variety of computational paths?
Ground Truth Answers: A non-deterministic Turing machinenon-deterministicnon-deterministic Turing machine
Prediction:
What is the term given to algorithms that utilize random bits?
Ground Truth Answers: randomized algorithmsrandomized algorithmsrandomized algorithms
Prediction:
What uses a flexible set of rules to determine its future actions?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is a deterministic Turing machine with an extra supply of random ribbons?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not often help algorithms solve problems more efficiently?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Which machine allows the machine to have multiple possible past actions from a given state?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How is one way that one should not view non-determinism?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Many types of Turing machines are used to define complexity classes, such as deterministic Turing machines, probabilistic Turing machines, non-deterministic Turing machines, quantum Turing machines, symmetric Turing machines and alternating Turing machines. They are all equally powerful in principle, but when resources (such as time or space) are bounded, some of these may be more powerful than others.
Turing machines are commonly employed to define what?
Ground Truth Answers: complexity classescomplexity classescomplexity classes
Prediction:
What are two factors that directly effect how powerful a Turing machine may or may not be?
Ground Truth Answers: time or spacetime or spacetime or space
Prediction:
In the determination of complexity classes, what are two examples of types of Turing machines?
Ground Truth Answers: probabilistic Turing machines, non-deterministic Turing machinesprobabilistic Turing machines, non-deterministic Turing machines
Prediction:
What are many types of Turing machines not used for?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are three factors that directly effect how powerful a Turing machine may or may not be?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What machines are not equally powerful in principle?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What may not be more powerful than others when the resources of time or space of considered?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Many machine models different from the standard multi-tape Turing machines have been proposed in the literature, for example random access machines. Perhaps surprisingly, each of these models can be converted to another without providing any extra computational power. The time and memory consumption of these alternate models may vary. What all these models have in common is that the machines operate deterministically.
What is an example of a machine model that deviates from a generally accepted multi-tape Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: random access machinesrandom access machinesrandom access machines
Prediction:
In considering Turing machines and alternate variables, what measurement left unaffected by conversion between machine models?
Ground Truth Answers: computational powercomputational powercomputational power
Prediction:
What two resources commonly consumed by alternate models are typically known to vary?
Ground Truth Answers: time and memorytime and memory consumptiontime and memory consumption
Prediction:
What commonality do alternate machine models, such as random access machines, share with Turing machines?
Ground Truth Answers: the machines operate deterministicallydeterministicallythe machines operate deterministically
Prediction:
What is not an example of a machine model that deviates from a generally accepted multi-tape Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What measurement is affected by conversion between machine models?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What two resources are uncommonly consumed by alternate models and are typically known to vary?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do all these models not have in common?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
However, some computational problems are easier to analyze in terms of more unusual resources. For example, a non-deterministic Turing machine is a computational model that is allowed to branch out to check many different possibilities at once. The non-deterministic Turing machine has very little to do with how we physically want to compute algorithms, but its branching exactly captures many of the mathematical models we want to analyze, so that non-deterministic time is a very important resource in analyzing computational problems.
What type of Turing machine can be characterized by checking multiple possibilities at the same time?
Ground Truth Answers: non-deterministicnon-deterministicnon-deterministic Turing machine
Prediction:
What often affects or facilitates ease of analysis in computational problems?
Ground Truth Answers: unusual resourcesmore unusual resourcesmore unusual resources
Prediction:
A non-deterministic Turing machine has the ability to capture what facet of useful analysis?
Ground Truth Answers: mathematical modelsmathematical modelsbranching
Prediction:
What is the most critical resource in the analysis of computational problems associated with non-deterministic Turing machines?
Ground Truth Answers: timenon-deterministic timenon-deterministic time
Prediction:
What is harder to analyze in terms of more unusual resources?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What type of machine is a computational model that is not allowed to branch out to check many different possibilities at once?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What has a lot to do with how we physically want to compute algorithms?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What machine's branching does not exactly capture many of the mathematical models we want to analyze?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the least critical resource in the analysis of computational problems associated with non-deterministic Turing machines?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
For a precise definition of what it means to solve a problem using a given amount of time and space, a computational model such as the deterministic Turing machine is used. The time required by a deterministic Turing machine M on input x is the total number of state transitions, or steps, the machine makes before it halts and outputs the answer ("yes" or "no"). A Turing machine M is said to operate within time f(n), if the time required by M on each input of length n is at most f(n). A decision problem A can be solved in time f(n) if there exists a Turing machine operating in time f(n) that solves the problem. Since complexity theory is interested in classifying problems based on their difficulty, one defines sets of problems based on some criteria. For instance, the set of problems solvable within time f(n) on a deterministic Turing machine is then denoted by DTIME(f(n)).The time required to output an answer on a deterministic Turing machine is expressed as what?
Ground Truth Answers: state transitionsthe total number of state transitions, or stepstotal number of state transitions, or steps, the machine makes before it halts and outputs the answer
Prediction:
Complexity theory classifies problems based on what primary attribute?
Ground Truth Answers: difficultydifficultydifficulty
Prediction:
What is the expression used to identify any given series of problems capable of being solved within time on a deterministic Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: DTIME(f(n))DTIME(f(n)).DTIME(f(n))
Prediction:
What is the most critical resource measured to in assessing the determination of a Turing machine's ability to solve any given set of problems?
Ground Truth Answers: timetimetime
Prediction:
What is not used for a precise definition of what it means to solve a problem using a given amount of time and space?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How is Turing machine M said not to operate?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the expression used to identify any given series of solutions capable of being solved within time on a deterministic Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the least critical resource measured in assessing the determination of a Turing machine's ability to solve any given set of problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How can decision problem B be solved in time x(f)?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Analogous definitions can be made for space requirements. Although time and space are the most well-known complexity resources, any complexity measure can be viewed as a computational resource. Complexity measures are very generally defined by the Blum complexity axioms. Other complexity measures used in complexity theory include communication complexity, circuit complexity, and decision tree complexity.
Time and space are both examples of what type of resource?
Ground Truth Answers: complexity resourcescomplexity resourcescomplexity
Prediction:
A complexity resource can also be described as what other type of resource?
Ground Truth Answers: computational resourcecomputationalcomputational
Prediction:
What is typically used to broadly define complexity measures?
Ground Truth Answers: Blum complexity axiomsthe Blum complexity axiomsthe Blum complexity axioms
Prediction:
Communication complexity is an example of what type of measure?
Ground Truth Answers: Complexity measurescomplexity measurescomplexity
Prediction:
Decision tree is an example of what type of measure?
Ground Truth Answers: Complexity measurescomplexity measurescomplexity
Prediction:
What can not be made for space requirements?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are the least well known complexity resources?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How are complexity measures generally not defined?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are other complexity measures not used in complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What type of measure is communication complexity not an example of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The best, worst and average case complexity refer to three different ways of measuring the time complexity (or any other complexity measure) of different inputs of the same size. Since some inputs of size n may be faster to solve than others, we define the following complexities:
What are the three primary expressions used to represent case complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: best, worst and averagebest, worst and average casebest, worst and average case complexity
Prediction:
Case complexity likelihoods provide variable probabilities of what general measure?
Ground Truth Answers: complexity measurecomplexitycomplexity
Prediction:
What is one common example of a critical complexity measure?
Ground Truth Answers: timetime complexitytime complexity
Prediction:
Case complexities provide three likelihoods of what differing variable that remains the same size?
Ground Truth Answers: inputsinputsinputs
Prediction:
What are the three secondary expressions used to represent case complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What three different ways are used to measure space complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is one not common example of a critical complexity measure?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What differing variable remains the same size when providing the four likelihoods of case complexities?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
For example, consider the deterministic sorting algorithm quicksort. This solves the problem of sorting a list of integers that is given as the input. The worst-case is when the input is sorted or sorted in reverse order, and the algorithm takes time O(n2) for this case. If we assume that all possible permutations of the input list are equally likely, the average time taken for sorting is O(n log n). The best case occurs when each pivoting divides the list in half, also needing O(n log n) time.
What provides a solution to a list of integers provided as input that ned to be sorted?
Ground Truth Answers: deterministic sorting algorithm quicksortquicksortthe deterministic sorting algorithm quicksort
Prediction:
When extensive time is required to sort integers, this represents what case complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: worst-caseworstworst-case
Prediction:
What is the expression used to denote a worst case complexity as expressed by time taken?
Ground Truth Answers: O(n2)O(n2)O(n2)
Prediction:
What does not solve the problem of sorting a list of integers that is given as the input?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does the deterministic parting algorithm quicksort do?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What case complexity is represented when limited time is required to sort integers?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the expression not used to denote worst case complexity as expressed by time taken?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What case complexity is represented when each pivoting divides the list in thirds, also needing O(n log n) time?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
To classify the computation time (or similar resources, such as space consumption), one is interested in proving upper and lower bounds on the minimum amount of time required by the most efficient algorithm solving a given problem. The complexity of an algorithm is usually taken to be its worst-case complexity, unless specified otherwise. Analyzing a particular algorithm falls under the field of analysis of algorithms. To show an upper bound T(n) on the time complexity of a problem, one needs to show only that there is a particular algorithm with running time at most T(n). However, proving lower bounds is much more difficult, since lower bounds make a statement about all possible algorithms that solve a given problem. The phrase "all possible algorithms" includes not just the algorithms known today, but any algorithm that might be discovered in the future. To show a lower bound of T(n) for a problem requires showing that no algorithm can have time complexity lower than T(n).
Classification of resources is contingent on determining the upper and lower bounds of minimum time required by what?
Ground Truth Answers: the most efficient algorithmthe most efficient algorithmthe most efficient algorithm solving a given problem
Prediction:
The analysis of a specific algorithm is typically assigned to what field of computational science?
Ground Truth Answers: analysis of algorithmsanalysis of algorithmsanalysis of algorithms
Prediction:
Which bound of time is more difficult to establish?
Ground Truth Answers: lower boundslowerlower bounds
Prediction:
A specific algorithm demonstrating T(n) represents what measure of time complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: upper boundupper and lower boundsupper bound
Prediction:
What is the colloquial phrase used to convey the continuum of algorithms with unlimited availability irrespective of time?
Ground Truth Answers: all possible algorithmsall possible algorithmsall possible algorithms
Prediction:
How does one note classify the computation time (or similar resources)?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is usually taken as the best case complexity, unless specified otherwise?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not fall under the field of analysis of algorithms>
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When does one not need to show only that there is a particular algorithm running time at mons T(nO?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is easy about proving lower bounds?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Upper and lower bounds are usually stated using the big O notation, which hides constant factors and smaller terms. This makes the bounds independent of the specific details of the computational model used. For instance, if T(n) = 7n2 + 15n + 40, in big O notation one would write T(n) = O(n2).
What expression is generally used to convey upper or lower bounds?
Ground Truth Answers: big O notationbig O notationbig O notation
Prediction:
What does a big O notation hide?
Ground Truth Answers: constant factors and smaller termsconstant factors and smaller termsconstant factors and smaller terms
Prediction:
How would one write T(n) = 7n2 + 15n + 40 in big O notation?
Ground Truth Answers: T(n) = O(n2)T(n) = O(n2)T(n) = O(n2)
Prediction:
Big O notation provides autonomy to upper and lower bounds with relationship to what?
Ground Truth Answers: the computational modelspecific details of the computational model usedthe specific details of the computational model used
Prediction:
What is usually not stated using the big O notation?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not hide constant factors or smaller terms?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What makes the bounds dependent of the specific details of the computational model?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How would one abbreviate T(n)=8n2 + 16n = 40 in big O notatation?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Of course, some complexity classes have complicated definitions that do not fit into this framework. Thus, a typical complexity class has a definition like the following:
What has complicated definitions that prevent classification into a framework?
Ground Truth Answers: complexity classescomplexity classessome complexity classes
Prediction:
Complexity classes are generally classified into what?
Ground Truth Answers: frameworkframeworkframework
Prediction:
Difficulty in establishing a framework for complexity classes can be caused by what variable?
Ground Truth Answers: complicated definitionscomplicated definitionsdefinitions
Prediction:
What fits the framework of complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What has uncomplicated definitions that prevent classification into a framework?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are complexity classes generally not classified into?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What variable is easy to establish in a framework for complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
But bounding the computation time above by some concrete function f(n) often yields complexity classes that depend on the chosen machine model. For instance, the language {xx | x is any binary string} can be solved in linear time on a multi-tape Turing machine, but necessarily requires quadratic time in the model of single-tape Turing machines. If we allow polynomial variations in running time, Cobham-Edmonds thesis states that "the time complexities in any two reasonable and general models of computation are polynomially related" (Goldreich 2008, Chapter 1.2). This forms the basis for the complexity class P, which is the set of decision problems solvable by a deterministic Turing machine within polynomial time. The corresponding set of function problems is FP.Concrete bounding of computation time frequently produces complexity classes contingent upon what?
Ground Truth Answers: chosen machine modelthe chosen machine modelthe chosen machine model
Prediction:
A multi-tape Turing machine requires what type of time for a solution?
Ground Truth Answers: linear timelinearlinear
Prediction:
A language solved in quadratic time implies the use of what type of Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: single-tape Turing machinessingle-tapesingle-tape
Prediction:
What thesis specifies that a polynomial relationship exists within time complexities in a computational model?
Ground Truth Answers: Cobham-Edmonds thesisCobham-EdmondsCobham-Edmonds thesis
Prediction:
Decision problems capable of being solved by a deterministic Turing machine while maintaining adherence to polynomial time belong to what class?
Ground Truth Answers: complexity class PPcomplexity class P
Prediction:
What does not often yield complexity classes that depend on the chosen machine model?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not frequently produce complexity classes that have concrete bounding of computation time?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can not be solved in linear time on multi-tape Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is not a binary string?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What thesis specifies that a trinomial relationship exists within time complexities in a computational model?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Many important complexity classes can be defined by bounding the time or space used by the algorithm. Some important complexity classes of decision problems defined in this manner are the following:
What are two examples of measurements are bound within algorithms to establish complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: time or spacetime or spacetime or space
Prediction:
What function is used by algorithms to define measurements like time or space?
Ground Truth Answers: boundingboundingbounding
Prediction:
Bounding of time and space or similar measurements is often used by algorithms to define what?
Ground Truth Answers: complexity classescomplexity classescomplexity classes
Prediction:
What cannot be defined by bounding the time or space used the the algorithm?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are three examples of measurement that are bound within algorithms to establish complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What function is used by algorithms to define measurements like time and numbers?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is often used by algorithms to measure bounding of space and atmosphere measurements?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Other important complexity classes include BPP, ZPP and RP, which are defined using probabilistic Turing machines; AC and NC, which are defined using Boolean circuits; and BQP and QMA, which are defined using quantum Turing machines. #P is an important complexity class of counting problems (not decision problems). Classes like IP and AM are defined using Interactive proof systems. ALL is the class of all decision problems.
What are three examples of complexity classes associated with definitions established by probabilistic Turing machines?
Ground Truth Answers: BPP, ZPP and RPBPP, ZPP and RPBPP, ZPP and RP
Prediction:
AC and NC are complexity classes typically associated with what type of circuit?
Ground Truth Answers: BooleanBooleanBoolean circuits;
Prediction:
BQP and QMA are examples of complexity classes most commonly associated with what type of Turing machine?
Ground Truth Answers: quantumquantumquantum
Prediction:
What is the expression used to represent a complexity class of counting problems?
Ground Truth Answers: #P#P#P
Prediction:
IP and AM are most commonly defined by what type of proof system?
Ground Truth Answers: InteractiveInteractiveInteractive
Prediction:
What are the other four important complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What machine does not define BPP, ZPP, and RP?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What machine does not define BQP or QMA?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is least important complexity class of counting problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What system not often define classes like IP and AM/
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
For the complexity classes defined in this way, it is desirable to prove that relaxing the requirements on (say) computation time indeed defines a bigger set of problems. In particular, although DTIME(n) is contained in DTIME(n2), it would be interesting to know if the inclusion is strict. For time and space requirements, the answer to such questions is given by the time and space hierarchy theorems respectively. They are called hierarchy theorems because they induce a proper hierarchy on the classes defined by constraining the respective resources. Thus there are pairs of complexity classes such that one is properly included in the other. Having deduced such proper set inclusions, we can proceed to make quantitative statements about how much more additional time or space is needed in order to increase the number of problems that can be solved.
What is an example of a measurement within a complexity class that would create a bigger set of problems if the bounds were relaxed?
Ground Truth Answers: computation timecomputation timecomputation time
Prediction:
In what expression can one expect to find DTIME(n)
Ground Truth Answers: DTIME(n2)DTIME(n2)DTIME(n2)
Prediction:
What theorems are responsible for determining questions of time and space requirements?
Ground Truth Answers: time and space hierarchy theoremstime and space hierarchy theoremstime and space hierarchy theorems
Prediction:
Resources are constrained by hierarchy theorems to produce what?
Ground Truth Answers: a proper hierarchy on the classes defineda proper hierarchy on the classesa proper hierarchy
Prediction:
What kind of statement is made in the effort of establishing the time and space requirements needed to enhance the ultimate number of problems solved?
Ground Truth Answers: quantitative statementsquantitativequantitative
Prediction:
What is not an example of a measurement within a complexity class that would create a bigger set of problems if the bounds were relaxed?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not define a bigger set of problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What expression does not usually contain DTIME(n)?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not induce a proper hierarchy on the classes defined by constraining the respective resources?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What kind of statement is not made in an effort of establishing the time and space requirements needed to enhance the ultimate number of problems solved?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The time and space hierarchy theorems form the basis for most separation results of complexity classes. For instance, the time hierarchy theorem tells us that P is strictly contained in EXPTIME, and the space hierarchy theorem tells us that L is strictly contained in PSPACE.
What is the foundation for separation results within complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: time and space hierarchy theoremsThe time and space hierarchy theoremstime and space hierarchy theorems
Prediction:
What is responsible for constraining P according to the time hierarchy theorem?
Ground Truth Answers: EXPTIMEEXPTIMEEXPTIME
Prediction:
Within what variable is L constrained according to the space hierarchy theorem?
Ground Truth Answers: PSPACEPSPACEPSPACE
Prediction:
What does not form the basis for most separation results of complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does the past time and space hierarchy theorems form the basis of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is not strictly contained in EXPTIME?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is not strictly contained in PSPACE?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Many complexity classes are defined using the concept of a reduction. A reduction is a transformation of one problem into another problem. It captures the informal notion of a problem being at least as difficult as another problem. For instance, if a problem X can be solved using an algorithm for Y, X is no more difficult than Y, and we say that X reduces to Y. There are many different types of reductions, based on the method of reduction, such as Cook reductions, Karp reductions and Levin reductions, and the bound on the complexity of reductions, such as polynomial-time reductions or log-space reductions.
What concept is frequently used to define complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: reductiona reductionreduction
Prediction:
Reduction essentially takes one problem and converts into what?
Ground Truth Answers: another problemanother problemanother problem
Prediction:
According to reduction, if X and Y can be solved by the same algorithm then X performs what function in relationship to Y?
Ground Truth Answers: reducesreducesX reduces to Y
Prediction:
What are two examples of different types of reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: Karp reductions and Levin reductionsCook reductions, Karp reductions
Prediction:
Polynomial time reductions are an example of what?
Ground Truth Answers: the bound on the complexity of reductionstypes of reductionsthe bound on the complexity of reductions
Prediction:
What are many complexity classes not defined by?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is defined by using the theorem of reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is a transformation of two problems into on three problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What captures the formal notion of a problem being at lease as difficult as another problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are the six types of reductions?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The most commonly used reduction is a polynomial-time reduction. This means that the reduction process takes polynomial time. For example, the problem of squaring an integer can be reduced to the problem of multiplying two integers. This means an algorithm for multiplying two integers can be used to square an integer. Indeed, this can be done by giving the same input to both inputs of the multiplication algorithm. Thus we see that squaring is not more difficult than multiplication, since squaring can be reduced to multiplication.
What is the most frequently employed type of reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: polynomial-time reductionpolynomial-timepolynomial-time reduction
Prediction:
What equates to a squared integer according to polynomial time reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: multiplying two integersmultiplying two integersmultiplying two integers
Prediction:
What measurement of time is used in polynomial time reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: polynomial timepolynomialpolynomial time
Prediction:
What would need to remain constant in a multiplication algorithm to produce the same outcome whether multiplying or squaring two integers?
Ground Truth Answers: inputinputinput
Prediction:
According to polynomial time reduction squaring can ultimately be logically reduced to what?
Ground Truth Answers: multiplicationmultiplicationmultiplication
Prediction:
What is the least used type of reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the meaning of polynomial-space reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can the problem of dividing an integer be reduced to?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does one not need to remain constant in a multiplication algorithm to produce the same outcome whether multiplying or squaring two integers?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is more difficult that multiplication?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
This motivates the concept of a problem being hard for a complexity class. A problem X is hard for a class of problems C if every problem in C can be reduced to X. Thus no problem in C is harder than X, since an algorithm for X allows us to solve any problem in C. Of course, the notion of hard problems depends on the type of reduction being used. For complexity classes larger than P, polynomial-time reductions are commonly used. In particular, the set of problems that are hard for NP is the set of NP-hard problems.
The complexity of problems often depends on what?
Ground Truth Answers: the type of reduction being usedthe type of reduction being used
Prediction:
What would create a conflict between a problem X and problem C within the context of reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: if every problem in C can be reduced to Xproblem in C is harder than X
Prediction:
An algorithm for X which reduces to C would us to do what?
Ground Truth Answers: solve any problem in Csolve any problem in Csolve any problem in C
Prediction:
A problem set that that is hard for the expression NP can also be stated how?
Ground Truth Answers: NP-hardNP-hardNP-hard problems
Prediction:
What does the complexity of problems not often depend on?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What would not create a conflict between a problem X and problem C within the context of reduction?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What problem in C is harder than X?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How is a problem set that is hard for expression QP be stated?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
If a problem X is in C and hard for C, then X is said to be complete for C. This means that X is the hardest problem in C. (Since many problems could be equally hard, one might say that X is one of the hardest problems in C.) Thus the class of NP-complete problems contains the most difficult problems in NP, in the sense that they are the ones most likely not to be in P. Because the problem P = NP is not solved, being able to reduce a known NP-complete problem, Π2, to another problem, Π1, would indicate that there is no known polynomial-time solution for Π1. This is because a polynomial-time solution to Π1 would yield a polynomial-time solution to Π2. Similarly, because all NP problems can be reduced to the set, finding an NP-complete problem that can be solved in polynomial time would mean that P = NP.
The hardest problems in NP can be analogously written as what class of problems?
Ground Truth Answers: NP-completeNP-completeNP-complete
Prediction:
NP complete problems contain the lowest likelihood of being located in what problem class?
Ground Truth Answers: NPPP
Prediction:
If P = NP is unsolved, and reduction is applied to a known NP-complete problem vis a vis Π2 to Π1, what conclusion can be drawn for Π1?
Ground Truth Answers: there is no known polynomial-time solutionno known polynomial-time solutionthere is no known polynomial-time solution
Prediction:
If polynomial time can be utilized within an NP-complete problem, what does the imply P is equal to?
Ground Truth Answers: NPNPNP
Prediction:
What happens if a problem X is in C, and soft for C?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the softest problem in C?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is class contains the the least difficult problems in NP?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What would indicate that there is a known polynomial-time solution for Ii1?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The complexity class P is often seen as a mathematical abstraction modeling those computational tasks that admit an efficient algorithm. This hypothesis is called the Cobham–Edmonds thesis. The complexity class NP, on the other hand, contains many problems that people would like to solve efficiently, but for which no efficient algorithm is known, such as the Boolean satisfiability problem, the Hamiltonian path problem and the vertex cover problem. Since deterministic Turing machines are special non-deterministic Turing machines, it is easily observed that each problem in P is also member of the class NP.
What complexity class is characterized by a computational tasks and efficient algorithms?
Ground Truth Answers: PPP
Prediction:
What hypothesis is associated with the complexity class of P viewed as a mathematical abstraction with efficient algorithmic functionality?
Ground Truth Answers: Cobham–Edmonds thesisCobham–Edmonds thesisCobham–Edmonds thesis
Prediction:
What complexity class is commonly characterized by unknown algorithms to enhance solvability?
Ground Truth Answers: NPNPNP
Prediction:
What is an example of a problem that rests within the NP complexity class?
Ground Truth Answers: Boolean satisfiability problemBoolean satisfiability problem
Prediction:
In what theoretical machine is it confirmed that a problem in P belies membership in the NP class?
Ground Truth Answers: Turing machinesdeterministic Turing machinesdeterministic Turing machines
Prediction:
What is often seen as a scientific abstraction modeling those computational tasks that admit an efficient algorithm?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What theory is the Cobham-Edward thesis?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What complexity class is not commonly characterized by unknown algorithms to enhance solubility?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is an example of a problem that rests within the NP simplicity class?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What ,theoretical machine did not confirm that a problem in P belies membership in the NX class?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The question of whether P equals NP is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. If the answer is yes, many important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions. These include various types of integer programming problems in operations research, many problems in logistics, protein structure prediction in biology, and the ability to find formal proofs of pure mathematics theorems. The P versus NP problem is one of the Millennium Prize Problems proposed by the Clay Mathematics Institute. There is a US$1,000,000 prize for resolving the problem.
If P is ultimately proven to be equal tot NP, what effect would this have on the efficiency of problems?
Ground Truth Answers: more efficient solutionsshown to have more efficient solutionsmany important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions
Prediction:
What is a particular problem in biology that would benefit from determining that P = NP?
Ground Truth Answers: protein structure predictionprotein structure predictionprotein structure prediction
Prediction:
What is the prize offered for finding a solution to P=NP?
Ground Truth Answers: $1,000,000US$1,000,000US$1,000,000
Prediction:
What is one of the least important open questions in theoretical computer science?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What effect would happen if P is ultimately proven to not equal NP ?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is a particular problem in chemistry that would benefit from determining that P = NP?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What problem was proposed by Clay Mathematics Institute at the Alpha Prize Problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What was the prize for finding a solution to P=NP at the the Alpha Prize Problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
It was shown by Ladner that if P ≠ NP then there exist problems in NP that are neither in P nor NP-complete. Such problems are called NP-intermediate problems. The graph isomorphism problem, the discrete logarithm problem and the integer factorization problem are examples of problems believed to be NP-intermediate. They are some of the very few NP problems not known to be in P or to be NP-complete.
Who demonstrated that P= NP implies problems not present in P or NP-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: LadnerLadnerLadner
Prediction:
What is the name for a problem that meets Ladner's assertion?
Ground Truth Answers: NP-intermediate problemsNP-intermediate problemsNP-intermediate
Prediction:
What is an example of an NP-intermediate problem not known to exist in P or NP-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: graph isomorphism problemthe discrete logarithm problemgraph isomorphism problem, the discrete logarithm problem and the integer factorization problem
Prediction:
Who showed that if P=NQ then there exists problems in NQ that are neither P nor NQ-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the name a a problem that meets Ladder's assertion?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is not example of an NP-intermediate problem not known to exist in P or NP-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are four examples of problems believed to be NP=intermediate?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The graph isomorphism problem is the computational problem of determining whether two finite graphs are isomorphic. An important unsolved problem in complexity theory is whether the graph isomorphism problem is in P, NP-complete, or NP-intermediate. The answer is not known, but it is believed that the problem is at least not NP-complete. If graph isomorphism is NP-complete, the polynomial time hierarchy collapses to its second level. Since it is widely believed that the polynomial hierarchy does not collapse to any finite level, it is believed that graph isomorphism is not NP-complete. The best algorithm for this problem, due to Laszlo Babai and Eugene Luks has run time 2O(√(n log(n))) for graphs with n vertices.
What is the problem attributed to defining if two finite graphs are isomorphic?
Ground Truth Answers: The graph isomorphism problemgraph isomorphismThe graph isomorphism problem
Prediction:
What class is most commonly not ascribed to the graph isomorphism problem in spite of definitive determination?
Ground Truth Answers: NP-completeNP-completeNP-complete
Prediction:
What finite hierarchy implies that the graph isomorphism problem is NP-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: polynomial time hierarchypolynomial timepolynomial time hierarchy
Prediction:
To what level would the polynomial time hierarchy collapse if graph isomorphism is NP-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: second levelsecondsecond
Prediction:
Who are commonly associated with the algorithm typically considered the most effective with respect to finite polynomial hierarchy and graph isomorphism?
Ground Truth Answers: Laszlo Babai and Eugene LuksBabai and Eugene LuksLaszlo Babai and Eugene Luks
Prediction:
What is the graph isolation problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the problem attributed to defining if three finite graphs are isomorphic?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is an important solved problem in complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What infinite hierarchy implies that the graph isomorphism problem s NQ-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What would the polynomial hierarchy collapse if graph isomorphism is NQ-complete?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
The integer factorization problem is the computational problem of determining the prime factorization of a given integer. Phrased as a decision problem, it is the problem of deciding whether the input has a factor less than k. No efficient integer factorization algorithm is known, and this fact forms the basis of several modern cryptographic systems, such as the RSA algorithm. The integer factorization problem is in NP and in co-NP (and even in UP and co-UP). If the problem is NP-complete, the polynomial time hierarchy will collapse to its first level (i.e., NP will equal co-NP). The best known algorithm for integer factorization is the general number field sieve, which takes time O(e(64/9)1/3(n.log 2)1/3(log (n.log 2))2/3) to factor an n-bit integer. However, the best known quantum algorithm for this problem, Shor's algorithm, does run in polynomial time. Unfortunately, this fact doesn't say much about where the problem lies with respect to non-quantum complexity classes.
What computational problem is commonly associated with prime factorization?
Ground Truth Answers: The integer factorization probleminteger factorizationinteger factorization problem
Prediction:
The integer factorization problem essentially seeks to determine if the value of of an input is less than what variable?
Ground Truth Answers: kkk
Prediction:
That there currently exists no known integer factorization problem underpins what commonly used system?
Ground Truth Answers: modern cryptographic systemsmodern cryptographic systemsRSA algorithm
Prediction:
What is the most well-known algorithm associated with the integer factorization problem?
Ground Truth Answers: the general number field sieveRSAgeneral number field sieve
Prediction:
What is the integer practice problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What computational problem is not commonly associated with prime factorization?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What problem is phrased on deciding whether the input has a factor more than k?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What problem would have polynomial time hierarchy that would collapse to its second level?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the least well known algorithm associated with the the integer factorization problem?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Many known complexity classes are suspected to be unequal, but this has not been proved. For instance P ⊆ NP ⊆ PP ⊆ PSPACE, but it is possible that P = PSPACE. If P is not equal to NP, then P is not equal to PSPACE either. Since there are many known complexity classes between P and PSPACE, such as RP, BPP, PP, BQP, MA, PH, etc., it is possible that all these complexity classes collapse to one class. Proving that any of these classes are unequal would be a major breakthrough in complexity theory.
What is the unproven assumption generally ascribed to the value of complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: suspected to be unequalunequalMany known complexity classes are suspected to be unequal
Prediction:
What is an expression that can be used to illustrate the suspected inequality of complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: P ⊆ NP ⊆ PP ⊆ PSPACEP ⊆ NP ⊆ PP ⊆ PSPACEP ⊆ NP ⊆ PP ⊆ PSPACE
Prediction:
Where can the complexity classes RP, BPP, PP, BQP, MA, and PH be located?
Ground Truth Answers: between P and PSPACEbetween P and PSPACEbetween P and PSPACE
Prediction:
What evidence between and among complexity classes would signify a theoretical watershed for complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: Proving that any of these classes are unequalProving that any of these classes are unequalProving that any of these classes are unequal
Prediction:
What is the proven assumption generally ascribed to the value of complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is an expression that caan be used to illustrate the suspected in equality of complexity classes?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Where can complexity classes RPP, BPP, PPP, BQP, MA, and PH be located?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is impossible for the complexity classes RP, BPP, PP, BQP, MA, and PH?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What would not be a major breakthrough in complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Along the same lines, co-NP is the class containing the complement problems (i.e. problems with the yes/no answers reversed) of NP problems. It is believed that NP is not equal to co-NP; however, it has not yet been proven. It has been shown that if these two complexity classes are not equal then P is not equal to NP.
In what complexity class do complement problems of NP problems exist?
Ground Truth Answers: co-NPco-NPco-NP
Prediction:
How do the yes/no answers of a complement problem of NP appear?
Ground Truth Answers: reversedreversedreversed
Prediction:
What is commonly believed to be the value relationship between P and co-NP
Ground Truth Answers: not equalnot equalnot equal
Prediction:
What implication can be derived for P and NP if P and co-NP are established to be unequal?
Ground Truth Answers: P is not equal to NPnot equalP is not equal to NP
Prediction:
What complexity class do incompatible problems of NP problems exist?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
How do the yes/no answers of an incompatible problem of of APPEAR?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is not commonly believed to be the value relationship between P and co-NP?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What implication can not be derived for P and NP is P and co-NP are established to be unequal?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Similarly, it is not known if L (the set of all problems that can be solved in logarithmic space) is strictly contained in P or equal to P. Again, there are many complexity classes between the two, such as NL and NC, and it is not known if they are distinct or equal classes.
What variable is associated with all problems solved within logarithmic space?
Ground Truth Answers: LLL
Prediction:
Though unkown, what are the most commonly ascribed attributes of L in relation to P
Ground Truth Answers: strictly contained in P or equal to Pcontained in P or equal to P.strictly contained in P or equal to P
Prediction:
What lies between L and P that prevents a definitive determination of the relationship between L and P?
Ground Truth Answers: complexity classesmany complexity classesmany complexity classes
Prediction:
What are two complexity classes between L and P?
Ground Truth Answers: NL and NCNL and NCNL and NC
Prediction:
What is unknown about the complexity classes between L and P that further prevents determining the value relationship between L and P?
Ground Truth Answers: if they are distinct or equal classesif they are distinct or equal classesif they are distinct or equal classes
Prediction:
What variable is not associated with all problems solved within logarithmic space?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are the least commonly ascribed attributes of L in relation to P?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not lie between L and P that allows a definitive determination of the relationship between L and P?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What are three complexity classes between L and P?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is known about the complexity between L and P that prevents determining the value between L and P?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Problems that can be solved in theory (e.g., given large but finite time), but which in practice take too long for their solutions to be useful, are known as intractable problems. In complexity theory, problems that lack polynomial-time solutions are considered to be intractable for more than the smallest inputs. In fact, the Cobham–Edmonds thesis states that only those problems that can be solved in polynomial time can be feasibly computed on some computational device. Problems that are known to be intractable in this sense include those that are EXPTIME-hard. If NP is not the same as P, then the NP-complete problems are also intractable in this sense. To see why exponential-time algorithms might be unusable in practice, consider a program that makes 2n operations before halting. For small n, say 100, and assuming for the sake of example that the computer does 1012 operations each second, the program would run for about 4 × 1010 years, which is the same order of magnitude as the age of the universe. Even with a much faster computer, the program would only be useful for very small instances and in that sense the intractability of a problem is somewhat independent of technological progress. Nevertheless, a polynomial time algorithm is not always practical. If its running time is, say, n15, it is unreasonable to consider it efficient and it is still useless except on small instances.
Problems capable of theoretical solutions but consuming unreasonable time in practical application are known as what?
Ground Truth Answers: intractable problemsintractable problemsintractableintractable
Prediction:
Intractable problems lacking polynomial time solutions necessarily negate the practical efficacy of what type of algorithm?
Ground Truth Answers: exponential-time algorithmsexponential-timeexponential-time algorithmsexponential-time algorithms
Prediction:
If NP is not equal to P, viewed through this lens, what type of problems can also be considered intractable?
Ground Truth Answers: NP-complete problemsNP-completeNP-completeNP-complete
Prediction:
What are problems that cannot be solved in theory, but which in practice take too long for their solutions to be useful?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When are problems that have polynomial-tome solutions in complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What states that only problems that cannot be solved in polynomial time can be feasibly computed on some computational device?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
When would a program not be useful for very small instances and in that sense the intractability of a problem is somewhat independent of technological progress?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What algorithm is always practical?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What intractability means in practice is open to debate. Saying that a problem is not in P does not imply that all large cases of the problem are hard or even that most of them are. For example, the decision problem in Presburger arithmetic has been shown not to be in P, yet algorithms have been written that solve the problem in reasonable times in most cases. Similarly, algorithms can solve the NP-complete knapsack problem over a wide range of sizes in less than quadratic time and SAT solvers routinely handle large instances of the NP-complete Boolean satisfiability problem.
What eponymous variation of arithmetic presents a decision problem not evidenced in P?
Ground Truth Answers: Presburger arithmeticPresburgerPresburger arithmetic
Prediction:
Despite the Presburger problem, and in view of intractability, what has been done to establish solutions in reasonable periods of time?
Ground Truth Answers: algorithms have been writtenalgorithms have been writtenalgorithms have been written that solve the problem in reasonable times in most cases
Prediction:
What is an example of a problem to which effective algorithms have provided a solution in spite of the intractability associated with the breadth of sizes?
Ground Truth Answers: NP-complete knapsack problemNP-complete knapsackthe NP-complete knapsack problem
Prediction:
How quickly can an algorithm solve an NP-complete knapsack problem?
Ground Truth Answers: in less than quadratic timeless than quadratic timeless than quadratic time
Prediction:
What is the example of another problem characterized by large instances that is routinely solved by SAT handlers employing efficient algorithms?
Ground Truth Answers: NP-complete Boolean satisfiability problemNP-complete Boolean satisfiabilitythe NP-complete Boolean satisfiability problem
Prediction:
What unknown variation of arithmetic presents a decision problem not evidenced in P?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What has not been done to establish solutions in reasonable period of time?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What can not solve the NP-complete knapsack problem over a wide range of sizes in less than quadratic time?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What do SAT solvers not usually handle when testing?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Before the actual research explicitly devoted to the complexity of algorithmic problems started off, numerous foundations were laid out by various researchers. Most influential among these was the definition of Turing machines by Alan Turing in 1936, which turned out to be a very robust and flexible simplification of a computer.
What tactic did researchers employ to offset the former deficit of work surrounding the complexity of algorithmic problems?
Ground Truth Answers: foundations were laid outnumerous foundations were laid outnumerous foundations were laid out by various researchers
Prediction:
Who was the most influential researcher among those grappling with the deficit of work surrounding the complexity posed by algorithmic problems?
Ground Truth Answers: Alan TuringAlan TuringAlan Turing
Prediction:
What theoretical device is attributed to Alan Turing?
Ground Truth Answers: Turing machinesTuring machinesTuring machines
Prediction:
In what year was the Alan Turing's definitional model of a computing device received?
Ground Truth Answers: 193619361936
Prediction:
In the most basic sense what did a Turing machine emulate?
Ground Truth Answers: a computera computera computer
Prediction:
What were laid out by various companies?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What tactic did companies employ to offset the former deficit of work surrounding the complexity of algorithmic problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who was the least influential researcher working on the complexity posed by algorithmic problems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What device did Alan Turning invent in 1974?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What was the Turning calculator a robust and flexible simplification of?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
As Fortnow & Homer (2003) point out, the beginning of systematic studies in computational complexity is attributed to the seminal paper "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms" by Juris Hartmanis and Richard Stearns (1965), which laid out the definitions of time and space complexity and proved the hierarchy theorems. Also, in 1965 Edmonds defined a "good" algorithm as one with running time bounded by a polynomial of the input size.
What paper is commonly considered the bellwether ushering in systematic studies computational complexity?
Ground Truth Answers: On the Computational Complexity of AlgorithmsOn the Computational Complexity of Algorithms"On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms"
Prediction:
What individuals were responsible for authoring "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms"?
Ground Truth Answers: Juris Hartmanis and Richard StearnsJuris Hartmanis and Richard StearnsJuris Hartmanis and Richard Stearns
Prediction:
In what year was Hatmanis and Stearn's seminal work in computational complexity received?
Ground Truth Answers: 196519651965
Prediction:
What complex measurements were defined by "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms"?
Ground Truth Answers: time and spacedefinitions of time and space complexitytime and space complexity
Prediction:
In what year did Edmond's characterize a "good" algorithm?
Ground Truth Answers: 196519651965
Prediction:
What seminal paper is commonly considered the beginning of sociology studies?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who wrote "On the Computational Complexity of Science"?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What seminal paper was written by Juris Hartmanis and Richard Stearns in 1975?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What simple measurements were defined by "On the Computational Complexity of Algorithms"?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Earlier papers studying problems solvable by Turing machines with specific bounded resources include John Myhill's definition of linear bounded automata (Myhill 1960), Raymond Smullyan's study of rudimentary sets (1961), as well as Hisao Yamada's paper on real-time computations (1962). Somewhat earlier, Boris Trakhtenbrot (1956), a pioneer in the field from the USSR, studied another specific complexity measure. As he remembers:
Who provided a definition of linear bounded automata in 1960?
Ground Truth Answers: John MyhillJohn MyhillJohn Myhill
Prediction:
In what year did Raymond Sullivan publish a study of rudimentary sets?
Ground Truth Answers: 196119611961
Prediction:
In 1962, who was responsible for the authorship of a paper published on real time-computations?
Ground Truth Answers: Hisao YamadaHisao YamadaHisao Yamada
Prediction:
Who wrote later papers studying problems solvable by Turning machines?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who provided a definition of linear bounded automata in 1970?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What year did Dick Sullivan publish a study on rudimentary sets?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who wrote a paper on real time computations in 1973?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who was pioneer and studied specific complexity measure in 1948?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Even though some proofs of complexity-theoretic theorems regularly assume some concrete choice of input encoding, one tries to keep the discussion abstract enough to be independent of the choice of encoding. This can be achieved by ensuring that different representations can be transformed into each other efficiently.
What is the concrete choice typically assumed by most complexity-theoretic theorems?
Ground Truth Answers: input encodinginput encodinginput encoding
Prediction:
In the effort of maintaining a level of abstraction, what choice is typically left independent?
Ground Truth Answers: encodingencodingencoding
Prediction:
What can not be achieved by ensuring different representations can transformed into each other efficiently?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What is the abstract choice typically assumed by most complexity-theoretic theorems?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What does not regularly use input coding as its concrete choice?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What choice is typically left dependent in an effort to maintain a level of abstraction?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
In 1967, Manuel Blum developed an axiomatic complexity theory based on his axioms and proved an important result, the so-called, speed-up theorem. The field really began to flourish in 1971 when the US researcher Stephen Cook and, working independently, Leonid Levin in the USSR, proved that there exist practically relevant problems that are NP-complete. In 1972, Richard Karp took this idea a leap forward with his landmark paper, "Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems", in which he showed that 21 diverse combinatorial and graph theoretical problems, each infamous for its computational intractability, are NP-complete.
Who is responsible for axiomatic complexity theory?
Ground Truth Answers: Manuel BlumManuel BlumManuel Blum
Prediction:
What theorem was implicated by Manuel Blum's axioms?
Ground Truth Answers: speed-up theoremspeed-up theoremspeed-up theorem
Prediction:
What is the paper written by Richard Karp in 1972 that ushered in a new era of understanding between intractability and NP-complete problems?
Ground Truth Answers: "Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems"Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems"Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems"
Prediction:
How many combinatory and graph theoretical problems, formerly believed to be plagued by intractability, did Karp's paper address?
Ground Truth Answers: 212121
Prediction:
Who developed an axiomatic complexity theory based on his axioms in 1974?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who is responsible for the so-called, speed-up theorem n 1974?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who proved that these exist practical relevant problems that are NP-complete in 1961?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
Who wrote the paper "Reductibility Among Combinatorial Problems" in 1974?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction:
What book featured 25 diverse comninatorial and graph theoretical problems each famous for its computational intractability?
Ground Truth Answers: <No Answer>
Prediction: